1 The Reformation: An Introduction 1
The Cry for Reform 2
The Concept of "Reformation" 5
The Lutheran Reformation 6
The Reformed Church 7
The Radical Reformation (Anabaptism) 9
The Catholic Reformation 11
The Importance of Printing 12
The Use of the Vernacular in Theological Debates 15
The Social Context of the Reformation 16
The Religious Concerns of the Reformers: A Brief Overview 20
2 Christianity in the Late Middle Ages 23
The Growth of Popular Religion 23
The Rise in Anti-Clericalism 24
The Rise of Doctrinal Pluralism 27
A Crisis of Authority within the Church 30
An English Case Study: Lollardy 32
3 Humanism and the Reformation 35
The Concept of "Renaissance" 36
The Concept of "Humanism" 37
Classical Scholarship and Philology 38
The New Philosophy of the Renaissance 38
Kristeller's View of Humanism 39
Ad Fontes - Back to the Fountainhead 40
Northern European Humanism 41
The Northern European Reception of the Italian Renaissance 41
The Ideals of Northern European Humanism 43
Eastern Swiss Humanism 43
French Legal Humanism 44
Erasmus of Rotterdam 46
The Critique of the Vulgate Text 48
Editions of Patristic Writers 50
Humanism and the Reformation - An Evaluation 51
Humanism and the Swiss Reformation 52
Humanism and the Wittenberg Reformation 53
Tensions between the Reformation and Humanism 55
4 Scholasticism and the Reformation 59
"Scholasticism" Defined 60
Scholasticism and the Universities 62
Types of Scholasticism 63
Realism versus Nominalism 63
"Pelagianism" and "Augustinianism" 65
The Via Moderna 67
The Schola Augustiniana Moderna 69
The Impact of Medieval Scholasticism upon the Reformation 70
Luther's Relation to Late Medieval Scholasticism 71
Calvin's Relation to Late Medieval Scholasticism 72
5 The Reformers: A Biographical Introduction 75
Martin Luther (1483-1546) 76
Huldrych Zwingli (1484-1531) 81
Philipp Melanchthon (1497-1560) 83
Martin Bucer (1491-1551) 84
John Calvin (1509-64) 85
6 The Return to the Bible 91
Scripture in the Middle Ages 92
The Concept of "Tradition" 92
The Vulgate Translation of the Bible 94
The Medieval Vernacular Versions of Scripture 94
The Humanists and the Bible 95
The Bible and the Protestant Reformation 97
The Canon of Scripture 97
The Authority of Scripture 98
The Role of Tradition 100
Methods of Interpreting Scripture 102
The Right to Interpret Scripture 106
The Translation of Scripture 110
The Catholic Response: Trent on Scripture and Tradition 112
7 The Doctrine of Justification by Faith 115
A Foundational Theme: Redemption through Christ 115
Justification and Martin Luther's Theological Breakthrough 117
Luther's Early Views on Justification 118
Luther's Discovery of the "Righteousness of God" 119
The Nature of Justifying Faith 121
Consequences of Luther's Doctrine of Justification 122
The Concept of "Forensic Justification" 125
Divergences among the Reformers on Justification 128
Justification and the Swiss Reformation 128
Later Developments: Bucer and Calvin on Justification 130
Theological Diplomacy: "Double Justification" 132
The Catholic Response: Trent on Justification 133
The Nature of Justification 134
The Nature of Justifying Righteousness 135
The Nature of Justifying Faith 136
The Assurance of Salvation 137
8 The Doctrine of the Church 141
The Background to the Reformation Debates: The Donatist Controversy 143
The Context of the Reformation Views on the Church 146
Luther on the Nature of the Church 147
The Radical View of the Church 149
Tensions within Luther's Doctrine of the Church 151
Calvin on the Nature of the Church 152
The Two Marks of the Church 153
The Structures of the Church 154
Calvin on the Church and Consistory 155
Calvin on the Role of the Church 157
The Debate over the Catholicity of the Church 158
The Council of Trent on the Church 161
9 The Doctrine of the Sacraments 163
The Background to the Sacramental Debates 163
The Sacraments and the Promises of Grace 165
Luther on the Sacraments 168
Luther on the Real Presence 171
Luther on Infant Baptism 172
Zwingli on the Sacraments 174
Zwingli on the Real Presence 176
Zwingli on Infant Baptism 179
Luther versus Zwingli: A Summary and Evaluation 181
Anabaptist Views on the Sacraments 183
Calvin on the Sacraments 185
The Catholic Response: Trent on the Sacraments 187
10 The Doctrine of Predestination 191
The Background to the Reformation Debates over Predestination 191
Zwingli on the Divine Sovereignty 193
Melanchthon's Changing Views on Predestination 195
Calvin on Predestination 197
Predestination in Later Reformed Theology 202
11 The Political Thought of the Reformation 207
The Radical Reformation and Secular Authority 207
Luther's Doctrine of the Two Kingdoms 210
Zwingli on the State and Magistrate 216
Bucer on Magistrate and Ministry 218
Calvin on Magistrate and Ministry 219
12 The Religious Ideas of the English Reformation 223
The Social Role of Religious Ideas: Germany and England 223
English Humanism 226
The Origins of the English Reformation: Henry Viii 227
The Consolidation of the English Reformation: Edward vi to Elizabeth I 230
Justification by Faith in the English Reformation 233
The Real Presence in the English Reformation 236
13 The Diffusion of the Thought of the Reformation 241
The Physical Agencies of Diffusion 241
The Vernacular 241
Books 242
The Interchange of People 243
The Diffusion of Ideas: The Key Texts 244
The Catechisms 244
Confessions of Faith 246
Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion 247
14 The Impact of Reformation Thought upon History 253
An Affirmative Attitude Toward the World 254
The Protestant Work Ethic 256
Reformation Thought and the Origins of Capitalism 258
Reformation Thought and Political Change 261
Reformation Thought and the Emergence of the Natural Sciences 263
Reformation Ecclesiologies and the Modern World 266
Conclusion 267
