VOLUME 1
PREFACE xxiii
CONTRIBUTORS xxvii
PART I CIVIL AND ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 1
1 New and Emerging Technologies in Structural Health Monitoring 3
Merit Enckell, Jacob Egede Andersen, Branko Glisic, and Johan Silfwerbrand
1.1 Introduction, 5
1.2 Background, 6
1.3 New and Emerging Technologies, 8
1.4 Fiber-Optic Technology, 16
1.5 Acoustic Emission, 24
1.6 Radar Technology, 27
1.7 Global Positioning System, 31
1.8 Corrosion Monitoring Systems, 33
1.9 Weigh-in-Motion (WIM) Systems, 35
1.10 Components of Structural Health Monitoring System, 37
1.11 Structural Health Monitoring System Design, 41
1.12 System Procurement and Installation, 44
1.13 Application of Structural Health Monitoring Systems, 47
1.14 Discussion, 67
1.15 Conclusion, 69
Acknowledgments, 70
References, 71
2 Applications of GIS in Engineering Measurements 79
Gary S. Spring
2.1 Introduction, 79
2.2 Background, 80
2.3 Basic Principles of GIS, 81
2.4 Measurement-Based GIS Applications, 96
2.5 Implementation Issues, 97
2.6 Conclusion, 100
References, 102
3 Traffic Congestion Management 105
Nagui M. Rouphail
3.1 Introduction and Background, 105
3.2 Scope of the Chapter, 106
3.3 Organization of the Chapter, 107
3.4 Fundamentals of Vehicle Emission Estimation, 107
3.5 Inventory of Traffic Congestion Management Methods, 112
3.6 Assessing Emission Impacts of Traffic Congestion Management, 119
3.7 Summary, 128
Acknowledgments, 129
References, 129
4 Seismic Testing of Highway Bridges 133
Eric V. Monzon, Ahmad M. Itani, and Gokhan Pekcan
4.1 Introduction, 133
4.2 Similitude Requirements, 134
4.3 Specimen Fabrication, 141
4.4 Input Motion, 148
4.5 Instrumentation, 150
4.6 Data Acquisition and Processing, 155
4.7 Results, 157
References, 158
5 Measurements in Environmental Engineering 159
Daniel A. Vallero
5.1 Introduction, 159
5.2 Environmental Sampling Approaches, 166
5.3 Laboratory Analysis, 169
5.4 Measurement Uncertainty, 183
5.5 Measurement Decision Making, 186
5.6 Environmental Indicators, 191
5.7 Extending Measurement Data Using Models, 199
5.8 Summary, 200
Nomenclature, 200
References, 202
6 Hydrology Measurements 205
Todd C. Rasmussen
6.1 Introduction, 206
6.2 Precipitation, 209
6.3 Evapotranspiration, 212
6.4 Surface Flow, 216
6.5 Groundwater, 219
6.6 Soil Water, 223
6.7 Water Quality, 226
Suggested Readings, 231
7 Mobile Source Emissions Testing 233
Mohan Venigalla
7.1 Testing for Regulatory Compliance, 234
References, 240
PART II MECHANICAL AND BIOMEDICAL ENGINEERING 241
8 Dimensions, Surfaces, and their Measurement 243
Mikell P. Groover
8.1 Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes, 244
8.2 Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages, 245
8.3 Surfaces, 254
References, 256
9 Mass Properties Measurement 259
David Tellet
9.1 Introduction, 260
9.2 Mass and Weight, 262
9.3 Measurement Methodology, 264
9.4 Weight and Mass Measurement, 274
9.5 Center of Gravity Measurement, 275
9.6 MOI Measurement, 280
9.7 POI Measurement, 284
9.8 Measuring Large Vehicles, 287
9.9 Sources of Uncertainty, 292
References, 300
10 Force Measurement 301
Patrick Collins
10.1 Introduction, 302
10.2 Force Transducers, 303
10.3 Universal Testing Machines, 306
10.4 The Strain Gauge Sensor, 307
10.5 Resonant Element Transducers, 311
10.6 Surface Acoustic Wave Transducers, 314
10.7 Dynamometers, 317
10.8 Optical Force Transducers, 317
10.9 Magneto-Elastic Transducers, 320
10.10 Force Balance Transducers, 321
10.11 Force Transducer Characteristics, 321
10.12 Calibration, 323
10.13 Conclusion, 329
Glossary of Terms, 329
References, 340
11 Resistive Strain Measurement Devices 343
Mark Tuttle
11.1 Preliminary Discussion, 343
11.2 Resistance Metal Strain Gages, 349
11.3 Semiconductor Strain Gages, 363
11.4 Liquid Metal Strain Gages, 365
References, 366
12 Vibration Measurement 367
Sheryl M. Gracewski and Nigel D. Ramoutar
12.1 Introduction, 367
12.2 One-Degree-of-Freedom System Response, 369
12.3 Multi-Degree-of-Freedom Systems and the Frequency Response Function, 373
12.4 Vibration Measurement Equipment and Techniques, 388
12.5 Experimental Modal Analysis, 405
12.6 Applications of Vibration Measurement, 423
Nomenclature, 428
References, 431
13 Acoustical Measurements 433
Brian E. Anderson, Jonathan D. Blotter, Kent L. Gee, and Scott D. Sommerfeldt
13.1 Introduction, 434
13.2 Fundamental Measures, 436
13.3 Microphones, 445
13.4 Sound Pressure Level Measurements, 451
13.5 Measurement of Sound Isolation, 454
13.6 Room Acoustics Measurements, 457
13.7 Community and Environmental Noise, 463
13.8 Sound Intensity Measurements, 465
13.9 Sound Power Measurements, 472
13.10 Sound Exposure Measurements, 476
References, 479
14 Temperature Measurement 483
Peter R. N. Childs
Summary, 484
14.1 Introduction, 484
14.2 Selection, 487
14.3 Invasive Temperature Measurement, 489
14.4 Semi-Invasive Methods, 511
14.5 Noninvasive Methods, 514
14.6 Conclusions, 519
Nomenclature, 519
References, 521
15 Pressure and Velocity Measurements 527
Richard S. Figliola and Donald E. Beasley
15.1 Pressure Concepts, 528
15.2 Pressure Reference Instruments, 530
15.3 Pressure Transducers, 536
15.4 Pressure Transducer Calibration, 543
15.5 Pressure Measurements in Moving Fluids, 544
15.6 Modeling Pressure and Fluid Systems, 548
15.7 Design and Installation: Transmission Effects, 548
15.8 Fluid Velocity Measuring Systems, 552
Nomenclature, 563
References, 564
16 Luminescent Method for Pressure Measurement 567
Gamal E. Khalil, Jim W. Crafton, Sergey D. Fonov, Marvin Sellers, and Dana Dabiri
16.1 Introduction, 567
16.2 Principles of Pressure-Sensitive Paint, 569
16.3 Pressure-Sensitive Luminescent Dyes, 571
16.4 PSP Polymer and Binder, 572
16.5 Measurement Methods, 574
16.6 Pressure-Sensitive Paint Measurements, 588
Acknowledgments, 611
References, 612
17 Flow Measurement 615
Jesse Yoder
17.1 New-Technology and Traditional Technology Flowmeters, 616
17.2 Trends in Flow Measurement, 627
Further Readings, 628
18 Heat Flux Measurement 629
Thomas E. Diller
18.1 Introduction, 630
18.2 Important Issues, 631
18.3 Gages Based on Spatial Temperature Difference, 634
18.4 Gages Based on Temperature Change with Time, 643
18.5 Gages Based on Active Heating Methods, 648
18.6 Calibration and Errors, 653
References, 655
19 Heat Transfer Measurements for Nonboiling Two-Phase Flow 661
Afshin J. Ghajar and Clement C. Tang
19.1 Introduction, 661
19.2 Experimental Setup for Horizontal and Slightly Inclined Pipes, 662
19.3 Instruments for Measurement and Data Acquisition, 666
19.4 Heat Transfer Experiment Procedures, 667
19.5 Verifying the Functionality of the Experimental Setup, 670
19.6 Experimental Results of Two-Phase Flow, 673
19.7 Concluding Remarks, 682
Nomenclature, 683
References, 684
20 Solar Energy Measurements 687
Tariq Muneer and Yieng Wei Tham
20.1 Introduction, 688
20.2 Measurement Equipment, 694
20.3 Equipment Error and Uncertainty, 703
20.4 Operational Errors, 704
20.5 Diffuse Radiation Data Measurement Errors, 704
20.6 Types of Sensors and their Accuracy, 711
20.7 Modern Developments, 711
20.8 Data Quality Assessment, 714
20.9 Statistical Evaluation of Models, 716
20.10 Outlier Analysis, 722
Acknowledgments, 722
References, 723
21 Wind Energy Measurements 727
Peter Gregg
21.1 Introduction, 728
21.2 Concepts, 728
21.3 Measurements, 731
21.4 Evaluation, 739
References, 747
22 Human Movement Measurements 749
Rahman Davoodi
22.1 Introduction, 749
22.2 Characterization of Human Movement, 750
22.3 Optical Motion Capture Systems, 751
22.4 Magnetic Motion Capture Systems, 754
22.5 Inertial Motion Capture Systems, 756
22.6 Discussion, 761
Acknowledgment, 762
References, 762
23 Flow Measurement 765
Arnold A. Fontaine, Keefe B. Manning, and Steven Deutsch
23.1 Introduction, 765
23.2 Flow Measurement Applications, 768
References, 799
PART III INDUSTRIAL ENGINEERING 803
24 Statistical Quality Control 805
Magd E. Zohdi
24.1 Measurements and Quality Control, 805
24.2 Dimension and Tolerance, 805
24.3 Quality Control, 806
24.4 Interrelationship of Tolerances of Assembled Products, 812
24.5 Operation Characteristic (OC) Curve, 812
24.6 Control Charts for Attributes, 812
24.7 Acceptance Sampling, 815
24.8 Defense Department Acceptance Sampling by Variables, 817
Further Readings, 817
25 Evaluating and Selecting Technology-Based Projects 819
Hans J. Thamhain
25.1 Management Perspective, 819
25.2 Quantitative Approaches, 821
25.3 Qualitative Approaches, 826
25.4 Recommendations, 828
Variables and Abbreviations, 831
References, 831
26 Manufacturing Systems Evaluation 833
Walter W. Olson
26.1 Introduction, 833
26.2 Components of Environmentally Conscious Manufacturing, 834
26.3 Manufacturing Systems, 835
26.4 System Effects on ECM, 838
26.5 Assessment, 840
26.6 Summary, 844
References, 845
27 Measuring Performance of Chemical Process Equipment 847
Alan Cross
27.1 Introduction, 847
27.2 Direct Fired Heater Measurement and Process Control
Instrumentation, 848
27.3 Crushing and Grinding Equipment Measurements, 851
References, 858
28 Industrial Energy Efficiency 859
B. Gopalakrishnan, D. P. Gupta, Y. Mardikar, and S. Chaudhari
28.1 Introduction, 860
28.2 Literature Review, 863
28.3 Data Analysis of Energy Efficiency Measures, 864
28.4 Energy Efficiency Measures in Major Energy Consuming
Equipment, 872
28.5 Case Studies of Development of Energy-Efficiency Measures, 879
28.6 Conclusion, 881
Acknowledgments, 881
References, 881
29 Industrial Waste Auditing 885
C. Visvanathan
29.1 Overview, 885
29.2 Waste-Minimization Programs, 886
29.3 Waste-Minimization Cycle, 888
29.4 Waste Auditing, 890
29.5 Conclusion, 909
Further Readings, 910
30 Organizational Performance Measurement 911
Jennifer A. Farris, Eileen M. Van Aken, and Geert Letens
30.1 Introduction, 911
30.2 Summary, 940
References, 940
INDEX
VOLUME 2
PART IV MATERIALS PROPERTIES AND TESTING 945 31 Viscosity Measurement 947
Ann M. Anderson, Bradford A. Bruno, and Lilla Safford Smith
31.1 Viscosity Background, 947
31.2 Common Units of Viscosity, 949
31.3 Major Viscosity Measurement Methods, 959
31.4 ASTM Standards for Measuring Viscosity, 974
31.5 Questions to Ask When Selecting a Viscosity Measurement Technique, 976
References, 979
32 Tribology Measurements 981
Prasanta Sahoo
32.1 Introduction, 982
32.2 Measurement of Surface Roughness, 983
32.3 Measurement of Friction, 988
32.4 Measurement of Wear, 992
32.5 Measurement of Test Environment, 994
32.6 Measurement of Material Characteristics, 998
32.7 Measurement of Lubricant Characteristics, 1001
32.8 Wear Particle Analysis, 1004
32.9 Industrial Measurements, 1005
32.10 Summary, 1006
33 Corrosion Monitoring 1007
Pierre R. Roberge
33.1 What is Corrosion Monitoring?, 1007
33.2 The Role of Corrosion Monitoring, 1008
33.3 Corrosion Monitoring System Considerations, 1010
References, 1116
34 Surface Properties Measurement 1121
Mrinalini Mulukutla and Sandip P. Harimkar
34.1 Introduction, 1121
34.2 Surface Properties, 1122
34.3 Microstructural Analysis, 1125
34.4 Compositional Analysis, 1128
34.5 Phase Analysis, 1130
34.6 Mechanical Testing, 1131
34.7 Corrosion Properties, 1141
34.8 Standards for Surface Engineering Measurement, 1145
References, 1147
35 Thermal Conductivity of Engineering Materials 1151
Juergen Blumm
35.1 Introduction, 1151
35.2 Stationary Methods for Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity, 1157
35.3 Transient Methods for the Measurement of the Thermal Conductivity, 1163
35.4 Test Results on Various Engineering Materials, 1173
References, 1188
36 Optical Methods for the Measurement of Thermal Conductivity 1189
Prabhakar R. Bandaru and Max S. Aubain
36.1 Thermal Boundary Resistance May Limit Accuracy in Contact-Based Thermal Conductivity (k) Measurements, 1189
36.2 Optical Measurements of k May Avoid Contact-Related Issues, 1192
36.3 Thermoreflectance (TR), 1196
36.4 Characteristics of Thermoreflectance from Si Thin Films-Modeling and Calibration, 1199
36.5 Experimental Procedures, 1202
36.6 Results and Discussion, 1204
36.7 Summary and Outlook, 1208
Acknowledgments, 1209
References, 1209
37 Selection of Metals for Structural Design 1213
Matthew J. Donachie
37.1 Introduction, 1214
37.2 Common Alloy Systems, 1215
37.3 What are Alloys and What Affects their Use?, 1215
37.4 What are the Properties of Alloys and How are Alloys Strengthened?, 1218
37.5 Manufacture of Alloy Articles, 1221
37.6 Alloy Information, 1221
37.7 Metals at Lower Temperatures, 1231
37.8 Metals at High Temperatures, 1233
37.9 Melting and Casting Practices, 1236
37.10 Forging, Forming, Powder Metallurgy, and Joining of Alloys, 1242
37.11 Surface Protection of Materials, 1245
37.12 Postservice Refurbishment and Repair, 1248
37.13 Alloy Selection: A Look at Possibilities, 1249
37.14 Level of Property Data, 1252
37.15 Thoughts on Alloy Systems, 1252
37.16 Selected Alloy Information Sources, 1259
Further Readings, 1261
38 Mechanical Properties of Polymers 1263
Daniel Liu, Jackie Rehkopf, and Maureen Reitman
38.1 Microstructure and Morphology of Polymers-Amorphous Versus Crystalline, 1264
38.2 General Stress-Strain Behavior, 1265
38.3 Viscoelasticity, 1271
38.4 Mechanical Models of Viscoelasticity, 1272
38.5 Time-Temperature Dependence, 1274
38.6 Deformation Mechanisms, 1274
38.7 Crazing, 1277
38.8 Fracture, 1279
38.9 Modifying Mechanical Properties, 1284
38.10 Load-Bearing Applications: Creep, Fatigue Resistance, and High Strain Rate Behavior, 1285
References, 1290
39 Electrical Properties of Polymers 1291
Evaristo Riande and Ricardo Diaz-Calleja
39.1 Introductory Remarks, 1291
39.2 Polarity and Permittivity, 1292
39.3 Measurements of Dielectric Permittivity, 1293
39.4 Polarization and Dipole Moments in Isotropic Systems, 1297
39.5 Thermostimulated Depolarization Currents, 1316
39.6 Conductivity in Polyelectrolytes and Polymer-Electrolytes as Separators for Low Temperature Fuel Cells and Electrical Batteries, 1318
39.7 Semiconductors and Electronic Conducting Polymers, 1324
39.8 Ferroelectricity, Pyroelectricity, and Piezoelectricity in Polymers, 1328
39.9 Nonlinear Polarization in Polymers, 1331
39.10 Elastomers for Actuators and Sensors, 1333
39.11 Electrical Breakdown in Polymers, 1336
References, 1338
40 Nondestructive Inspection 1343
Robert L. Crane and Jeremy S. Knopp
40.1 Introduction, 1344
40.2 Liquid Penetrants, 1347
40.3 Radiography, 1351
40.4 Ultrasonic Methods, 1361
40.5 Magnetic Particle Method, 1370
40.6 Thermal Methods, 1373
40.7 Eddy Current Methods, 1375
References, 1410
41 Testing of Metallic Materials 1413
Peter C. McKeighan
41.1 Mechanical Test Laboratory, 1414
41.2 Tensile and Compressive Property Testing, 1418
41.3 Creep and Stress Relaxation Testing, 1420
41.4 Hardness and Impact Testing, 1422
41.5 Fracture Toughness Testing, 1425
41.6 Fatigue Testing, 1429
41.7 Other Mechanical Testing, 1433
41.8 Environmental Considerations, 1434
Acknowledgments, 1436
References, 1436
42 Ceramics Testing 1437
Shawn K. McGuire and Michael G. Jenkins
42.1 Introduction, 1437
42.2 Mechanical Testing, 1438
42.3 Thermal Testing, 1451
42.4 Nondestructive Evaluation Testing, 1458
42.5 Electrical Testing, 1460
42.6 Summary, 1461
References, 1461
43 Plastics Testing 1463
Vishu Shah
43.1 Introduction, 1464
43.2 Mechanical Properties, 1464
43.3 Thermal Properties, 1481
43.4 Electrical Properties, 1484
43.5 Weathering Properties, 1488
43.6 Optical Properties, 1492
Further Readings, 1496
44 Testing and Instrumental Analysis for Plastics Processing: Key Characterization Techniques 1499
Maria del Pilar Noriega
44.1 FTIR Spectroscopy, 1499
44.2 Chromatography (GC, GC-MSD, GC-FID, and HPLC), 1500
44.3 DSC and Thermogravimetry (TGA), 1510
44.4 Rheometry, 1518
References, 1527
45 Analytical Tools for Estimation of Particulate Composite Material Properties 1529
Tarek I. Zohdi and Magd E. Zohdi
45.1 Introduction, 1529
45.2 Concepts in Statistical Quality Control, 1530
45.3 Effective Property Estimates, 1531
45.4 Summary, 1535
References, 1537
PART V INSTRUMENTATION 1539
46 Instrument Statics 1541
Jerry Lee Hall, Sriram Sundararajan, and Mahmood Naim
46.1 Terminology, 1541
46.2 Static Calibration, 1544
46.3 Statistics in the Measurement Process, 1547
References, 1570
47 Input and Output Characteristics 1573
Adam C. Bell
47.1 Introduction, 1574
47.2 Familiar Examples of Input-Output Interactions, 1575
47.3 Energy, Power, Impedance, 1578
47.4 Operating Point of Static Systems, 1586
47.5 Transforming the Operating Point, 1598
47.6 Measurement Systems, 1602
47.7 Distributed Systems in Brief, 1607
47.8 Concluding Remarks, 1609
References, 1610
48 Bridge Transducers 1611
Patrick L. Walter
48.1 Terminology, 1612
48.2 Flexural Devices in Measurement Systems, 1612
48.3 The Resistance Strain Gage, 1615
48.4 The Wheatstone Bridge, 1625
48.5 Resistance Bridge Balance Methods, 1634
48.6 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System Calibration, 1636
48.7 Resistance Bridge Transducer Measurement System Considerations, 1646
48.8 AC Impedance Bridge Transducers, 1655
References, 1660
Further Readings, 1661
49 Signal Processing 1663
John Turnbull
49.1 Frequency-Domain Analysis of Linear Systems, 1663
49.2 Basic Analog Filters, 1666
49.3 Basic Digital Filter, 1672
49.4 Stability and Phase Analysis, 1680
49.5 Extracting Signal from Noise, 1682
References, 1683
50 Data Acquisition and Display Systems 1685
Philip C. Milliman
50.1 Introduction, 1686
50.2 Data Acquisition, 1687
50.3 Process Data Acquisition, 1688
50.4 Data Conditioning, 1691
50.5 Data Storage, 1699
50.6 Data Display and Reporting, 1704
50.7 Data Analysis, 1707
50.8 Data Communications, 1708
50.9 Other Data Acquisition and Display Topics, 1712
50.10 Summary, 1715
References, 1715
PART VI MEASUREMENT STANDARDS 1517
51 Mathematical and Physical Units, Standards, and Tables 1719
Jack H. Westbrook
51.1 Symbols and Abbreviations, 1720
Bibliography for Letter Symbols, 1731
Bibliography for Graphic Symbols, 1737
51.2 Mathematical Tables, 1742
51.3 Statistical Tables, 1765
51.4 Units and Standards, 1775
Bibliography for Units and Measurements, 1802
51.5 Tables of Conversion Factors, 1802
51.6 Standard Sizes, 1833
51.7 Standard Screws, 1886
52 Measurement Uncertainty 1911
David Clippinger
52.1 Introduction, 1911
52.2 Literature, 1914
52.3 Evaluation of Uncertainty, 1915
52.4 Discussion, 1924
Disclaimer, 1924
References, 1925
53 Measurements 1927
E. L. Hixson and E. A. Ripperger
53.1 Standards and Accuracy, 1927
53.2 Impedance Concepts, 1930
53.3 Error Analysis, 1935
References, 1942
INDEX I-1
