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1 Introduction, Sampling, Local Testing, etc..- 1.1 General.- 1.1.1 Water resources.- 1.1.2 Water management.- 1.1.3 Water analyses.- 1.2 Local inspection and sampling of water.- 1.2.1 Sampling of water.- 1.2.2 Local investigations.- 1.2.3 Geology and Hydrogeology.- 1.2.4 Technical information on the water resource.- 1.2.5 Possibilities of environmental influences on the water resource.- 1.2.6 Hygienic considerations.- 1.3 Techniques of water sampling.- 1.3.1 General.- 1.3.2 Bottle material.- 1.3.3 Techniques of sampling.- 1.4 Water sampling in practice.- 1.4.1 Local investigations.- 1.4.2 Sampling for microbiological analysis of water.- 1.4.3 Sampling for physico-chemical analyses.- 1.4.4 Sampling for chemical analyses (see also 1.3).- 1.4.5 Water sampling for gas analyses.- 1.4.6 Radioactive inert gases.- 1.5 Special instructions for sampling water of various origins and for various investigation purposes.- 1.5.1 Surface water.- 1.5.2 Ground water.- 1.5.3 Salt water.- 1.5.4 Bathing water.- 1.5.5 Industrial water.- 1.5.6 Irrigation.- 1.5.7 Expanses of water devoted to fish cultivation.- 1.5.8 Waste water.- 1.5.9 Sludge.- 1.6 Local investigations (see also 1.7).- 1.6.1 Preservation of water samples.- 1.6.2 Inorganic substances contained in the water.- 1.6.3 Organic substances contained in the water.- 1.6.4 Radioactivity.- 1.7 Local analyses (see also 1.6).- 1.7.1 Sensory examination on site.- 1.7.2 Colouring.- 1.7.3 Transparency and turbidity.- 1.7.4 Temperature.- 1.7.5 Hydrogen-ion activity (pH) (cf. also Chapter 2).- 1.7.6 Electrical conductivity.- 1.7.7 Redox potential.- 1.7.8 Oxygen (cf. also Section 3.6).- 1.7.9 Ozone.- 1.7.10 Chlorine.- 1.7.11 Determination of chlorine dioxide (ClO2) and chlorite (ClO2?).- 1.7.12 Carbon dioxide (CO2), titrimetric determining process on site (cf. also Section 3.6).- 1.7.13 p- and m-values (acid-base consumption, $$HC{O_{{3^ - }}}$$
and CO32?).- 1.7.14 Corrosive carbonic acid.- 1.7.15 Settleable substances.- 1.7.16 The investigation of wastes and sludges in the context of water pollution.- 1.7.17 The importance of site inspections for biological assessment of water resources (cf. also Section 1.2, 1.4 and 1.5 above).- 2 Theoretical Introduction to Selected Methods of Water Analysis (Classic and Instrumental Methods).- 2.1 Concentration processes such as evaporation, distillation, precipitation, coprecipitation, adsorption, ion exchange and extraction.- 2.1.1 Evaporation.- 2.1.2 Distillation.- 2.1.3 Precipitation.- 2.1.4 Coprecipitation.- 2.1.5 Adsorption and ion exchange.- 2.1.6 Extraction.- 2.1.7 Volumetric analysis.- 2.2 Electrochemical processes of analysis.- 2.2.1 Introduction.- 2.2.2 Coulometry.- 2.2.3 Potentiometry.- 2.2.3.1 Ion-sensitive electrodes.- 2.2.4 Polarography.- 2.3 Spectrophotometry (or photometry).- 2.3.1 Measurable variables of light absorption.- 2.3.2 The Lambert-Beer Law.- 2.3.3 Design and mode of operation of an absorption spectrophotometer.- 2.3.4 Photoelectric photometers.- 2.3.5 Evaluation.- 2.4 Flame-emission spectrophotometry (FES).- 2.4.1 Design of the instrument.- 2.4.2 Evaluation.- 2.5 Emission spectrum analysis.- 2.6 X-ray Fluorescence Analysis.- 2.7 Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS).- 2.7.1 Design of the equipment.- 2.7.2 Scope.- 2.7.3 General aspects of calibration and analysis.- 2.7.4 AAS measurements using the graphite furnace technique.- 2.7.5 Example of an AAS measuring system after Perkin-Elmer.- 2.8 Atomic Emission Spectrometry with Inductively Coupled Plasma Excitation (ICP-AES).- 2.8.1 General.- 2.8.2 Equipment.- 2.8.3 Analytical limits.- 2.9 Fluorescence Spectrometry.- 2.9.1 Equipment.- 2.9.2 Interference.- 2.10 Infrared Spectroscopy.- 2.10.1 General remarks.- 2.10.2 Evaluation of an IR spectrum.- 2.10.3 Preparation and handling of the samples.- 2.11 Chromatographic methods.- 2.11.1 General.- 2.11.2 The main chromatographic techniques used in water analysis.- 2.11.3 General comments on GC-MS techniques in water analysis.- 2.12 Introduction to gas chromatography.- 2.12.1 Principles and definition of the method.- 2.12.2 Structure of gas-chromatographic apparatus.- 2.12.3 Identification of sample components.- 2.12.4 Determination of sample concentrations.- 2.12.5 Sensitivity.- 2.12.6 Speed of analysis and automation.- 2.12.7 Theory of the chromatographic process.- 2.12.8 The separation process.- 2.12.9 General remarks on the formation of the peak shape.- 2.12.10 The partition isotherms.- 2.12.11 Causes of peak broadening.- 2.12.12 The van Deemter equation.- 2.12.13 The number of theoretical plates.- 2.12.14 The efficiency or selectivity of the liquid phase.- 2.12.15 The resolution equation.- 2.12.16 General remarks on GC detectors.- 2.12.16.1 Flame ionization detector (FID).- 2.12.16.2 Electron capture detector (ECD).- 2.12.16.3 Thermionic detector (TSB) and alkali flame ionization detector (AFID).- 2.12.16.4 Flame-photometric detector (FPD).- 2.12.16.5 Thermal conductivity detector.- 2.12.16.6 Microcoulometric detector.- 2.12.16.7 Mass-selective detector.- 2.12.17 Theoretical considerations regarding detectors.- 2.12.17.1 General remarks.- 2.12.17.2 Characteristic parameters of detectors.- 2.13 Gas-chromatographic headspace analysis (cf. also Chapter 4).- 2.13.1 General remarks.- 2.13.2 Area of application.- 2.14 High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).- 2.14.1 Basic principles.- 2.14.2 Retention.- 2.14.3 Separation mechanisms.- 2.15 Ion chromatography.- 2.15.1 Ion chromatographs with suppressor.- 2.15.2 Ion chromatography without suppressor.- 2.15.3 Anion separation.- 2.15.4 Examples.- 2.16 Radiochemical analysis of water samples (Introduction).- 2.16.1 General information.- 2.16.2 Types of radiation.- 2.16.3 Radionuclides in water.- 2.16.4 Units of measurement.- 2.16.5 Radioactive decay.- 2.16.6 Enrichment of radionuclides.- 2.16.7 Measuring preparations.- 2.16.8 Total determination.- 2.16.9 Safety regulations.- 2.16.10 Radiation protection.- 2.16.11 Detectors and measuring equipment.- 2.17 Enzymatic Analysis.- 3 Inorganic Parameters.- 3.1 Total parameters.- 3.1.1 Turbidity measurements (see also Section 1.7.5).- 3.1.2 Density.- 3.1.3 Total determination of dissolved and undissolved substances.- 3.1.3.1 Undissolved substances.- 3.1.3.2 Cumulative determination of dissolved substances with cation exchangers.- 3.1.4 Sulphide sulphur (H2S, HS?, S2?) (see also Chapter 1 and Section 3.6).- 3.1.4.1 Iodometric determination of sulphide sulphur.- 3.1.4.2 Spectrophotometric analysis of sulphide sulphur as methylene blue.- 3.1.5 Water “hardness” (see also Chapter 1, and Sections 3.2 and 3.3).- 3.2 Anions.- 3.2.1 Fluoride.- 3.2.1.1 Spectrophotometric determination with lanthanum alizarin complexone, directly or following steam acid distillation.- 3.2.1.2 Determination of the fluoride ion with an ion-selective (ion-sensitive) electrode.- 3.2.1.3 Ion chromatography determination of fluoride ions (see Section 3.2.11).- 3.2.2 Chloride.- 3.2.2.1 Gravimetric determination.- 3.2.2.2 Volumetric determination with silver nitrate (electometric indication).- 3.2.2.3 Volumetric determination with silver nitrate and potassium chromate (visual indication).- 3.2.2.4 Ion chromatography determination (see Section 3.2.11).- 3.2.3 Bromide and iodide.- 3.2.3.1 Consecutive iodometric determination of bromide and iodide in one solution.- 3.2.3.2 Ion chromatography (see Section 3.2.11).- 3.2.4 Nitrite.- 3.2.4.1 Spectrophotometric analysis with sulphanilic acid and 1-naphthylamine.- 3.2.4.2 Ion chromatography (see Section 3.2.11).- 3.2.5 Nitrate.- 3.2.5.1 Spectrophotometric analysis with sodium salicylate.- 3.2.5.2 Nitrate with 2,6-dimethylphenol.- 3.2.5.3 Determination of nitrate after reductive distillation.- 3.2.5.4 Ion chromatography (see Section 3.2.11).- 3.2.6 Sulphite.- 3.2.6.1 Iodometric determination of sulphite.- 3.2.6.2 Gravimetric determination as barium sulphate after distillation.- 3.2.6.3 Polarographic determination of sulphite (including sulphide and thiosulphate).- 3.2.7 Sulphate.- 3.2.7.1 Gravimetric Determination as Barium Sulphate.- 3.2.7.2 Nephelometric Determination of Sulphate.- 3.2.7.3 Ion chromatography (see Section 3.2.11).- 3.2.8 Phosphate.- 3.2.8.1 Orthophosphate (calculated as hydrogen phosphate).- 3.2.8.2 Sum of orthophosphate and hydrolyzable phosphorus compounds.- 3.2.8.3 Total phosphorus.- 3.2.8.4 Phosphate determination using ion chromatography (see Section 3.2.11).- 3.2.8.5 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.2.9 Carbonic acid, hydrogen carbonate and carbonate (see also Chapter 1 and Section 3.6).- 3.2.9.1 Acid consumption (alkalinity).- 3.2.9.2 Acid consumption and base consumption (p and m value).- 3.2.9.3 Acidimetric determination of carbonate ions and hydrogen carbonate ions (p and m values).- 3.2.9.4 Base comsumption (acidity).- 3.2.10 Total carbon dioxide (see also 3.6, carbon dioxide).- 3.2.10.1 Calculation of Sc (diss. CO2) from the p and m value.- 3.2.10.2 Volumetric determination after distillation.- 3.2.10.3 Gravimetric determination after distillation.- 3.2.11 Ion Chromatography of seven anions.- 3.3 Cations.- 3.3.1 Lithium.- 3.3.1.1 Determination by flame photometry.- 3.3.1.2 Direct determination of lithium by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.1.3 Lithium determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.3.2 Sodium.- 3.3.2.1 Flame photometry.- 3.3.2.2 Direct determination of sodium by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.2.3 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.3.3 Potassium.- 3.3.3.1 Determination by flame photometry.- 3.3.3.2 Direct determination of potassium by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.3.3 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.3.4 Rubidium and caesium.- 3.3.4.1 Determination by flame photometry.- 3.3.4.2 Determination of rubidium and caesium in water samples by means of AAS.- 3.3.4.3 Direct determination of rubidium by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.4.4 Direct determination of caesium by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.4.5 Basis of the method of concentration.- 3.3.5 Ammonium (ammonia).- 3.3.5.1 Photometric determination of NH4+ as indophenol.- 3.3.5.2 Acidimetric determination of NH4+ or NH3 after distillation.- 3.3.6 Magnesium.- 3.3.6.1 Direct determination of magnesium by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.6.2 Complexometric analysis (see Calcium, Section 3.3.7).- 3.3.6.3 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.3.7 Calcium.- 3.3.7.1 Direct determination of calcium by means of atomic-absorption analysis..- 3.3.7.2 Chelatometric determination of calcium ions and magnesium ions.- 3.3.7.3 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.3.8 Strontium.- 3.3.8.1 Direct determination by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.8.2 Determination by flame photometry.- 3.3.8.3 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.3.9 Barium.- 3.3.9.1 Direct determination of barium by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.9.2 Method of enrichment of barium.- 3.3.9.3 Barium determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.3.9.4 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.3.10 Iron.- 3.3.10.1 Direct determination of iron by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.10.2 Iron determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.3.10.3 Spectrophotometric determination of iron (II) ions with 2,2’-bipyridyl (Fresenius-Schneider).- 3.3.10.4 Spectrophotometric determination of total iron with 2,2’-bipyridyl.- 3.3.10.5 Spectrophotometric determination of total iron with thioglycolic acid.- 3.3.10.6 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.3.11 Manganese.- 3.3.11.1 Direct determination of manganese by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.3.11.2 Manganese determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.3.11.3 Spectrophotometric determination as permanganate following oxidation by peroxodisulphate.- 3.3.11.4 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.3.12 Atomic-emission spectrometry with inductively coupled plasma (ICP-AES, see also Chapter 2).- 3.4 Trace substances (inorganic) (For ICP-AES determination of 24 elements see Section 3.3.12).- 3.4.1 Trace detection of elements in parallel by emission spectrography survey analysis (see also Chapter 2).- 3.4.1.1 Concentration by trace precipitation.- 3.4.1.2 Concentration by extraction.- 3.4.2 Aluminium.- 3.4.2.1 Direct determination by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.4.2.2 Aluminium determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.2.3 Spectrophotometric determination with eriochromcyanine R.- 3.4.3 Arsenic.- 3.4.3.1 Determination of arsenic using the hydride AAS technique.- 3.4.3.2 Spectrophotometric determination of total arsenic with silver diethyl dithiocarbamate.- 3.4.3.3 Iodometric determination of arsenic (III).- 3.4.3.4 Separating arsenic (III) and arsenic (V).- 3.4.4 Antimony.- 3.4.4.1 Determination of antimony using the hydride AAS technique.- 3.4.4.2 Spectrophotometric determination with rhodamine B.- 3.4.5 Beryllium.- 3.4.5.1 Direct determination by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.4.5.2 Basis of the method of concentration.- 3.4.5.3 Beryllium determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.5.4 Spectrophotometric determination using chromazurol S.- 3.4.6 Lead.- 3.4.6.1 Spectrophotometric determination of lead with dithizone.- 3.4.6.2 Direct determination by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.4.6.3 Basis of the method of concentration.- 3.4.6.4 Lead determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.6.5 ICP-AES see Section 3.3.12.- 3.4.7 Cadmium.- 3.4.7.1 Direct determination by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.4.7.2 Cadmium determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.7.3 Spectrophotometric determination of cadmium with dithizone.- 3.4.7.4 ICP-AES see Section 3.3.12.- 3.4.8 Chromium.- 3.4.8.1 Direct determination by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.4.8.2 Total chromium.- 3.4.8.3 Determination of hexavalent chromium.- 3.4.8.4 Chromium determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.8.5 Photometric determination of total chromium using diphenyl carbazide.- 3.4.8.6 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.4.9 Germanium.- 3.4.9.1 Determination of germanium by emission spectrography.- 3.4.9.2 Determination of germanium using graphite-tube AAS technique.- 3.4.10 Cobalt.- 3.4.10.1 Spectrophotometric determination as thiocyanate/tetraphenyl arsonium complex.- 3.4.10.2 Direct determination of cobalt by means of atomic-absorption flame analysis.- 3.4.10.3 Cobalt determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.10.4 ICP-AES see Section 3.3.12.- 3.4.11 Copper.- 3.4.11.1 Direct determination by means of atomic-absorption flame analysis.- 3.4.11.2 Copper determination with the graphite-tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.11.3 Spectrophotometric determination using NaDDTC.- 3.4.11.4 ICP-AES see Section 3.3.12.- 3.4.12 Molybdenum.- 3.4.12.1 Spectrophotometric determination as a molybdenum (V) thiocyanate complex.- 3.4.12.2 Direct determination of molybdenum by means of atomic-absorption flame analysis.- 3.4.12.3 Principle of the method of extractive concentration.- 3.4.12.4 ICP-AES see Section 3.3.12.- 3.4.13 Nickel.- 3.4.13.1 Spectrophotometric determination with diacetyl dioxime (dimethylglyoxime).- 3.4.13.2 Direct determination by means of atomic-absorption flame analysis.- 3.4.13.3 Method with concentration.- 3.4.13.4 Nickel determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.13.5 ICP-AES see Section 3.3.12.- 3.4.14 Mercury.- 3.4.14.1 Mercury AAS with cold vapour method.- 3.4.15 Selenium.- 3.4.15.1 Determination of selenium using the hydride AAS technique.- 3.4.15.2 Spectrophotometric determination of selenium with o-phenylenediamine.- 3.4.16 Silver.- 3.4.16.1 Direct determination of silver by means of atomic absorption flame analysis.- 3.4.16.2 Silver determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.16.3 Spectrophotometric determination with dithizone.- 3.4.16.4 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.4.17 Thallium.- 3.4.17.1 Direct determination of thallium by means of atomic-absorption analysis..- 3.4.17.2 Thallium determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.17.3 Determination of thallium by inversion voltammetry.- 3.4.17.4 Determination of thallium with X-ray-fluorescence analysis.- 3.4.18 Titanium.- 3.4.18.1 Photometric determination of titanium.- 3.4.18.2 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.4.19 Uranium (see also Section 3.7).- 3.4.19.1 Fluorimetric determination of uranium in a sodium fluoride/alkali carbonate melt.- 3.4.20 Vanadium.- 3.4.20.1 Direct determination of vanadium by means of atomic absorption analysis..- 3.4.20.2 Concentration: Principle of the method of extractive concentration.- 3.4.20.3 Vanadium determination with the graphite tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.20.4 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.4.21 Zinc.- 3.4.21.1 Spectrophotometric determination with dithizone.- 3.4.21.2 Direct determination by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.4.21.3 Zinc determination with the graphite-tube technique (Furnace method).- 3.4.21.4 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.4.22 Tin (Sn).- 3.4.22.1 Turbidimetric determination with nitrophenol arsonic acid (iP no AAS facilities are available).- 3.4.22.2 Direct determination of tin by means of atomic-absorption analysis.- 3.4.22.3 Determination of tin using the AAS hydride technique.- 3.4.23 Zirconium (Zr).- 3.5 Undissociated substances (for H2S see also Sections 3.1 and 3.6).- 3.5.1 Boron compounds.- 3.5.1.1 Spectrophotometric determination with 1,1’-dianthrimide.- 3.5.1.2 Spectrophotometric determination with azomethine-H.- 3.5.1.3 Volumetric determination following distillation.- 3.5.1.4 Extraction of boron.- 3.5.1.5 ICP-AES (see Section 3.3.12).- 3.5.2 Silicic acid.- 3.5.2.1 Spectrophotometric analysis with ammonium molybdate.- 3.5.2.2 Gravimetric determination as silicon dioxide (silica).- 3.6 Gaseous Substances.- 3.6.1 Sampling and gas-chromatographic analysis.- 3.6.2 Carbon dioxide (see also Chapter 1 and Section 3.2).- 3.6.2.1 Direct titration with sodium hydroxide solution.- 3.6.2.2 Alternative: Gas diffusion method.- 3.6.2.3 Back-titration method for the determination of “free, dissolved carbon dioxide”.- 3.7 Radioactivity measurements in water (see also Chapter 2).- 3.7.1 General.- 3.7.1.1 General guidelines.- 3.7.2 ?-activity.- 3.7.2.1 Direct measurement of radon 222.- 3.7.2.2 Radium 226.- 3.7.2.3 De-emanation of water sample (isolation of radon 222).- 3.7.3 Measurement of ??-activity of water samples.- 3.7.3.1 Analysis of radioactive strontium and barium in water samples.- 3.7.3.2 Rapid method of estimating strontium 90 content in water.- 3.7.4 Other radionuclides in water (General analytical information).- 3.7.5 Measurement of radionuclides in water.- 3.7.5.1 Radionuclide determination in water.- 3.7.5.2 Total activity or individual nuclide determination.- 3.7.5.3 Criteria governing the selection of the detection method.- 3.7.5.4 Modern measuring instruments for determining total activity?.- 3.7.5.5 Detection limit in theory and practice.- 3.7.5.6 Notes on measurement.- 4 Organic Parameters.- 4.1 Overall organic parameters.- 4.1.1 TOC/DOC (Total Organic Carbon/Dissolved Organic Carbon).- 4.1.2 Oxidizable Organic Substances.- 4.1.2.1 Oxidizability.- 4.1.2.2 Chemical oxygen demand (COD).- 4.1.3 Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD).- 4.1.4 UV absorption.- 4.1.5 Determination of organically bound halogens as overall parameters (EOX/AOX).- 4.1.6 Cyanide.- 4.1.6.1 General.- 4.1.6.2 Total cyanide.- 4.1.6.3 Spectrophotometric method of analysis using barbituric acid-pyridine in the distillate.- 4.1.6.4 Volumetric analysis using silver nitrate.- 4.1.6.5 Easily released cyanide.- 4.1.6.6 Spectrophotometric analysis using barbituric acid-pyridine.- 4.1.7 Detergents (surfactants).- 4.1.7.1 Determination of total detergents (surfactants).- 4.1.7.2 Photometric determination of anionic detergents (surfactants) with methylene blue (Methylene blue active substances, MBAS).- 4.1.7.3 Determination of nonionic detergents (surfactants).- 4.1.7.4 Cationic detergents (surfactants) after ion exchange.- 4.1.8 Determination of hydrocarbons (Oil and greaselike extractable substances).- 4.1.8.1 Gravimetric determination following extraction with n-hexane.- Appendix 1 to Method 4.1.8.1 (Extraction with n-hexane).- Appendix 2 to Method 4.1.8.1 and to Appendix 1.- Appendix 3 to Method 4.1.8.1 and Appendix 1.- 4.1.8.2 Determination of hydrocarbons by infrared intensity spectroscopy.- 4.1.8.3 Determination of hydrocarbons (measurement of UV fluorescence).- 4.1.9 Phenol (phenol index).- 4.1.9.1 Determination of phenol-type substances which are capable of coupling, in natural waters, with p-nitroaniline.- 4.1.9.2 Phenol index with 4-aminoantipyrine without extraction after steam distillation.- 4.1.9.3 Phenol index with 4-aminoantipyrine after extraction and also if necessary after distillation.- 4.1.9.4 Separation by gas chromatography of phenol-type substances including halogenated phenols (see Section 4.2).- 4.1.10 Nitrogen compounds.- 4.1.11 Organic acids.- 4.1.11.1 Determination of organic acids which are volatile with steam.- 4.1.11.2 Quantitative analysis of organic acids after separation by column chromatography.- 4.1.11.3 Analysis of organic acids using gas chromatography.- 4.1.12 Isolation and measurement of humic substances.- 4.1.13 Urochrome.- 4.2 Organic compounds.- 4.2.1 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.- 4.2.1.1 Detection of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons using thin-layer chromatography.- 4.2.1.2 Determination using high pressure liquid chromatography.- 4.2.2 Determination of phenols in water (see also Section 4 1 9).- 4.2.3 Determination of aromatic hydrocarbons, kerosene, heating oil, diesel oil or petrol (gasoline) etc. in water.- 4.2.4 Systematic determination of highly volatile halogenated hydrocarbons (HHC) in water samples using gas chromatography.- 4.2.5 Determination of nitroaromatics and higher-boiling halogenated compounds in water.- 4.2.6 System of determination of organochlorine pesticides, organophosphorus pesticides and triazines in water.- 4.2.7 System for the determination of phenylurea and herbicidal carbamates in water.- 4.2.8 System for the determination of phenoxyalkane carboxylic acids in water.- 4.2.9 Determination of pesticides in water by gas chromatography according to the methods of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Society GRS).- 4.2.10 Organophosphorus pesticides, thiophosphoric acid esters, chlorinated hydrocarbons and triazine herbicides.- Appendix to 4.2.9 and 4.2.10.- 4.2.11 Gas chromatography head-space analysis.- 4.2.12 Determination of plasticizers in water.- 4.2.13 Determination of antioxidants in water.- 4.2.14 Enzymatic determination of urea.- 5 Biological Analysis.- 5.1 Significance of biological and ecological investigations when evaluating the quality of flowing water.- 5.1.1 Significance of worm eggs in waste water, sewage sludge, surface water, swimming-pool water, drinking water and process water.- 5.1.2 A clear classification of water quality was published in 1985 by the West German organization “Länderarbeitsgemeinschaft Wasser” — LAWA (Water Study Group of the German Federal States).- 5.2 Microbiological water analysis.- 5.2.1 General remarks.- 5.2.2 Microorganisms in water.- 5.2.3 Direct counting of germs.- 5.2.4 Indirect methods of counting germs.- 5.2.5 Indicator germs.- 5.2.6 General requirements for microbiological work.- 5.2.7 Taking and transporting water samples for microbiological investigations.- 5.2.8 Performing the microbiological analysis of the water.- 5.2.8.1 Determining the total colony counts.- 5.2.8.2 Detection of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria.- 5.2.8.3 Detection of faecal streptococci.- 5.2.8.4 Detection of sulphite-reducing, spore-forming anaerobes.- 5.2.8.5 Detection of Pseudomonas aeruginosa.- 5.2.8.6 Occurrence, significance and detection of sulphate-reducing bacteria.- 5.2.8.7 Autotrophic microorganisms in water.- 5.2.8.8 Sulphur bacteria.- 5.2.8.9 Distribution of worm parasites.- 5.2.9 Preparation of culture solutions and culture media.- 5.2.10 Prepared culture media.- 5.2.11 Detection reagents for biochemical reactions.- 5.2.12 Work sheets for microbiological water analysis.- 5.2.12.1 Sheet 1— Taking and handling samples.- 5.2.12.2 Sheet 2 — Determining the colony count.- 5.2.12.3 Sheet 3 — Detection of Escherichia coli and coliform bacteria.- 5.2.12.4 Sheet 4 — Detection of faecal streptococci, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and sulphite-reducing Clostridia.- 5.2.12.5 Sheet 5 — Cleaning with sterilization.- 5.3 Biological toxicity tests.- 5.3.1 Bacterial inhibiting tests.- 5.3.1.1 Respirometric measurements.- 5.3.1.2 Test using Pseudomonas fluorescens.- 5.3.2 Fish test for sewage.- 6 Evaluation of Analysis Data.- 6.1 Introduction to statistical evaluation.- 6.2 Applications of statistical methods in water analysis.- 6.2.1 Calibration.- 6.2.2 Calibration when using new methods of analysis.- 6.2.3 Calibration in routine analysis.- 6.2.4 Detection limit and determination limit.- 6.2.5 Blank values.- 6.2.6 Standard addition.- 6.2.7 Matrix effects.- 6.2.8 Comparison of analytical methods.- 6.2.9 Optimizing analytical methods.- 6.3 Quality control.- 6.3.1 Internal quality control.- 6.3.2 External quality control.- 6.4 Data evaluation.- 6.4.1 Univariate statistical evaluation.- 6.4.2 Bivariate statistical evaluation.- 6.4.3 Multivariate statistical investigations.- 6.4.3.1 Principal component analysis.- 6.4.3.2 Cluster analyses.- 6.4.3.3 Multidimensional discriminatory analysis.- 6.5 Time-series analyses.- 6.6 Technical advice.- 6.7 Assessment of water analysis findings.- 6.7.1 WHO Guidelines for drinking water quality (1984).- 6.7.2 Directive of the Council of the European Communities on the quality of water for human consumption.- 6.7.3 Federal Republic of Germany: Recommendations on halogenated hydrocarbons.- 6.7.4 Treatment of surface water to obtain drinking water.- 6.7.5 Waste water.- 6.7.5.1 Stipulations applying to the discharge of industrial sewage.- 6.7.6 Requirements to be satisfied by bathing waters.- 6.7.6.1 Quality requirements for bathing water.- 6.7.7 Substances used for treating drinking water.- 6.7.8 Concluding remarks.- 7 Subject Index.

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Water Analysis A Practical Guide to Physico-Chemical, Chemical and Microbiological Water Examination and Quality Assurance

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