List of illustrations
To the reader
To the teacher
Acknowledgements
Abbreviations
1. The fact of language change
1.1 Irregardless
1.2 English then and now
1.3 Attitudes to language change
1.4 The inevitability of change
Case-study: kind regards
Further reading
Exercises
2. Lexical and semantic change
2.1 Borrowing
2.2 Phonological treatment of loans
2.3 Morphological treatment of loans
2.4 Formation of new words
2.5 Change in word-meaning
Case study: nice
Further reading
Exercises
3. Phonological change 1: Change in pronunciation
3.1 The phonetic basis of phonological change
3.2 Assimilation and dissimilation
3.3 Lenition and fortition
3.4 Addition and removal of phonetic features
3.5 Vowels and syllable structure
3.6 Whole-segment processes
3.7 The regularity issue: a first look
Case study: Germanic */xw/ in the present-day dialects
3.8 Summary
Further reading
Exercises
4. Phonological change II: Change in phonological systems
4.1 Conditioning and rephonologization
4.2 Phonological space
4.3 Chain shifts
Case study: large scale change in the Germanic consonant system - Grimm's Law and Verner's Law
4.4 Summary
Further reading
Exercises
5. Morphological change
5.1 Reanalysis
5.2 Analogy and levelling
5.3 Universal principles of analogy
5.4 Morphologization
5.5 Morphologization of phonological rules
5.6 Change in morphological type
Case study: The evolution of the definite article from the demonstrative paradigm in English
Further reading
Exercises
6. Syntactic change
6.1 Reanalysis of surface structure
6.2 Shift of markedness
6.3 Grammaticalization
6.4 Typological harmony
6.5 Syntactic change as restructuring of grammars
Case study: the rise of ergativity
Further reading
Exercises
7. Relatedness between languages
7.1 The origin of dialects
7.2 Dialect geography
7.4 Tree model and wave model
7.5 The language families of the world
Case study: A Martian's view on the Germanic language family
Further reading
Exercises
8. The comparative method
8.1 Systematic correspondences
8.2 Comparative reconstruction
8.3 Pitfalls and limitations
8.4 The Neogrammarian Hypothesis
8.5 Semantic reconstruction
8.6 The use of typology and universals
8.7 Reconstructing grammar
8.8 The reality of proto-languages
Case study: A reconstruction too far?
Further reading
Exercises
9. Internal Reconstruction
9.1 A first look at the internal method
9.2 Alternations and internal reconstruction
9.3 Internal reconstruction of grammar and lexicon
Case study: The laryngeal theory of PIE
Further reading
Exercises
10. The origin and propagation of change
10.1 The Saussurean paradox
10.2 Variation and social stratification
10.3 Variation as the vehicle of change
10.4 Lexical diffusion
10.5 Near-mergers
Case study: historical sociolinguistics
Further reading
Exercises
11. Social and historical pressures upon language
11.1 Linguistic contact
11.2 Linguistic areas
11.3 Language birth: pidgins and creoles
11.4 Language planning
11.5 Language death
Case study: the genesis and development of American and New Zealand English
Further reading
Exercises
12. Language and pre-history
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Linguistic palaeontology
12.3 Links with archaeology
12.4 Statistical methods
Case study: Greenberg's mass comparison
Further reading
Exercises
Appendix: The Swadesh 200-word list
References
Index
