Preface xv
Acknowledgements xvii
1 Importance of Additive Manufacturing in the Era of Industry 4.0 1
Bijaya Bikram Samal, Abhishek Kumar, Anita Jena, Debadutta Mishra, Shailendra Kumar Varshney , Ashish Kumar Nath and Cheruvu Siva Kumar
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Additive Manufacturing as an Enabler of Industry 4.0 6
1.3 Synergies Between Additive Manufacturing and Digital Technologies 9
1.3.1 Flexibility and Customization 9
1.3.2 Decentralized Manufacturing and Localized Production 9
1.3.3 Sustainability and Environmental Impact 10
1.3.4 Continuous Innovation through Iterative Design 10
1.4 Integration of AM with Digital Twins and Simulation 10
1.4.1 Role of Digital Twins in Manufacturing 11
1.4.2 Simulation Technologies Enhancing AM Integration 13
1.4.3 Real-Time Monitoring and Predictive Maintenance 13
1.5 Applications Across Industries 14
1.5.1 Automotive Lightweighting for Fuel Efficiency 14
1.5.2 Healthcare Customized Medical Implants 15
1.5.3 Consumer Electronics Prototyping 15
1.5.4 Aerospace and Defense: Complex Component Manufacturing 16
1.5.5 Biotechnology: Bioprinting and Tissue Engineering 16
1.5.6 Automotive and Transportation: Short-Run Production and Prototyping 17
1.5.7 Consumer Goods: Customized Consumer Products 17
1.5.8 Energy Sector: Efficient Component Manufacturing 17
1.5.9 Construction: Customized Architectural Components 18
1.5.10 Marine: Lightweight and Durable Ship Components 18
1.5.11 Sports Equipment: Tailored Performance Gear 18
1.5.12 Electronics: Miniaturized and Efficient Circuitry 18
1.6 Challenges and Opportunities 19
1.6.1 Technical Challenges in Integration 19
1.6.2 Adoption Barriers and Industry Transition 19
1.6.3 Opportunities for Research and Innovation 20
1.7 Conclusions 20
Acknowledgments 21
References 21
2 Additive Manufacturing Processing and Techniques: Focusing on Laser Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) and Its Various Post Processing Technologies 29
Abhishek Kumar, Bijaya Bikram Samal, Ashish Kumar Nath, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu Siva Kumar
2.1 Introduction 30
2.2 Classification of Additive Manufacturing 32
2.2.1 Material Classification 34
2.2.2 Energy Source Classification 34
2.2.3 Process Type Classification 34
2.2.4 Application Classification 35
2.3 LPBF 35
2.3.1 L-PBF Process Details 36
2.3.2 Process Parameters 39
2.3.3 Surface Roughness and Morphology of L-PBF 41
2.3.4 Metallurgical Aspects and Mechanical Properties of L-PBF Parts 42
2.4 Post Processing of Additive Manufactured Parts 43
2.4.1 Powder Removal, Recycling and Conditioning 43
2.4.2 Part Removal and Postprocessing for Machining Operations 43
2.4.3 Finishing of Part for Improved Surface Finish and Aesthetic 44
2.4.3.1 Mechanical Surface Post-Processing 44
2.4.3.2 Chemical Treatments and Electrochemical Surface Modification 44
2.4.3.3 Laser-Based Surface Polishing 45
2.4.3.4 Surface Coating 46
2.4.3.5 Heat Treatment 47
2.4.3.6 Polishing 47
2.4.3.7 Laser Polishing 49
2.4.3.8 Mechanism of Laser Polishing 49
2.4.3.9 Type of Laser Polishing 52
2.4.3.10 Advantage, Limitation and Application of Laser Polishing 52
2.5 Surface Metrology and Characterization 54
2.5.1 Surface Integrity and Topography 54
2.5.2 Surface Texture 55
2.5.2.1 Form 55
2.5.2.2 Waviness 55
2.5.2.3 Roughness 56
2.5.2.4 Micro Roughness 56
2.5.2.5 Filtering 56
2.5.3 Surface Texture Parameters 57
2.5.4 Significance of L-PBF Surface Roughness for Various Applications 58
2.6 Conclusions 59
Acknowledgments 60
References 61
3 The Rise of Smart Materials: Recent Developments 69
Mariel Amparo Fernandez Aramayo, Mohd Rehan, Bijaya Bikram Samal, Cheruvu Siva Kumar and Shailendra Kumar Varshney
3.1 Introduction 70
3.2 Importance of Smart Materials in 4D Printing 72
3.3 Types of Smart Materials 73
3.3.1 Shape Memory Materials 74
3.3.1.1 Concepts of Shape Memory Effects 74
3.3.1.2 Shape Memory Polymers 76
3.3.1.3 Shape Memory Alloys 77
3.3.2 Piezoelectric Materials 78
3.3.3 Magnetostrictive Materials 78
3.3.4 Thermoresponsive Materials 79
3.3.5 Photo Responsive Materials 80
3.3.6 Chromoactive Materials 81
3.3.7 Rheological Fluids 83
3.3.8 Self-Healing Materials 83
3.3.9 Hydrogels 84
3.3.10 Liquid Crystal Elastomers (LCEs) 84
3.4 Conclusion 85
References 86
4 From 3D Printing to 4D Printing: Adding Time Dimension 93
Bijaya Bikram Samal, Debadutta Mishra, Marwan Nafea, Anita Jena, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu Siva Kumar
4.1 Introduction 94
4.2 Additive Manufacturing Evolution 95
4.2.1 Historical Overview of 3D Printing Technology 96
4.3 A Decade of 4D Printing (2013-2023) 98
4.4 Understanding the Fourth Dimension: Time in Printing 106
4.4.1 Conceptualization of Time as a Dimension in Additive Manufacturing 107
4.5 Laws of 4D Printing 111
4.6 Challenges and Opportunities in the Transition to 4D Printing from 3D 113
4.6.1 Material Limitations and Compatibility Issues in 4D Printing 113
4.6.2 Scalability and Cost Considerations for 4D Printing Technologies 114
4.6.3 Regulatory Hurdles and Safety Concerns in Implementing 4D Printing 114
4.7 Future Directions and Emerging Trends in 4D Printing 115
4.7.1 Development of New Smart Materials 115
4.7.2 Integration with Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning 115
4.7.3 Biomedical Applications 116
4.7.4 Sustainable and Regenerative Manufacturing 116
4.8 Conclusions 116
Acknowledgments 117
References 117
5 4D Printing of Polymers 125
Sivanagaraju Namathoti, Pavan Kumar Gurrala, Prakash Chandra and M. R. K. Vakkalagadda
5.1 Introduction to 4D Printing Techniques of Polymers 126
5.2 4D Printing Technologies 128
5.2.1 Stereolithography 128
5.2.2 Digital Light Processing (DLP) 129
5.3 Extrusion 3D Printing 130
5.3.1 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) 131
5.4 Liquid Deposition Modeling (LDM) or Direct Ink Writing (diw) 132
5.5 Binder Jetting 133
5.5.1 Inkjet Printing 133
5.5.2 Aerosol Jet Printing (AJP) 134
5.6 4D Printing of SMPs and Materials 135
5.6.1 Polycaprolactone (PCL) Based Polymers 137
5.6.2 Polyurethane (PU) 138
5.6.3 Polyethylene Glycol (PEG) 139
5.6.4 4D Hydrogels 140
5.7 4D Printing of Two-Way SMPs 144
5.8 Applications of SMPs 148
5.9 Summary & Future Scope 149
References 151
6 Polymer Blends and Reinforcements in 4D Printing 165
Sivanagaraju Namathoti, Pavan Kumar Gurrala, Prakash Chandra, G. Naga Mallikarjun Rao and M. R. K. Vakkalagadda
6.1 Introduction 166
6.2 Types of Polymer Blends 167
6.2.1 Miscible Polymer Blends 167
6.2.2 Immiscible Polymer Blends 168
6.2.3 Compatibility for Miscible Polymer Blends 168
6.3 Shape Memory Polymer Blends 169
6.3.1 Blending of SMP/Conventional Polymers 169
6.3.2 SMP Blends of Crystalline and Amorphous Polymers 170
6.3.3 SMP Blends by Combining Crystalline Polymer with Crystalline Polymer 171
6.3.4 SMP Blends by Combining Elastomer with Crystalline or Amorphous Polymer 171
6.3.5 SMPs Created by Blending and Radiation Crosslinking 172
6.4 Reinforcements in 4D Printing 172
6.4.1 Fiber Reinforcements 172
6.4.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) or Carbon Nanofibers (CNFs) 174
6.4.3 Graphene Reinforcements 178
6.4.4 Carbon Black Reinforcements 179
6.4.5 Nano Clay Reinforcements 180
6.4.6 Metal/Metal Oxide Nanoparticles 182
6.4.7 Thermo-Responsive Nanoparticles 183
6.4.8 Photo-Curable Nanoparticles 184
6.4.9 Magnetic Nanoparticles 185
6.5 Applications of Blended and Reinforced SMPs in 4D Printing 185
6.6 Characteristics of 4D Printed Polymer Blends and Nanocomposites 186
6.7 Summary and Future Scope 195
6.8 Challenges 195
6.9 Future Prospects 196
References 196
7 4D Printing in Micro/Nano Scale: Technologies, Challenges, and Applications 205
Kaustav Moni Bora, Anita Jena, Ujjal Dey, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu SivaKumar
Abbreviations 206
7.1 Introduction 207
7.1.1 4D Printing in Micro/Nano Scale 210
7.2 Materials 211
7.3 Micro-Nano Scale 4D Printing Processes 214
7.3.1 Two-Photon Lithography/3D Printing by Direct Laser Writing 217
7.3.2 Micro Laser Sintering 218
7.3.3 Micro Stereolithography 220
7.3.4 Ink Based AM 220
7.3.5 Beam Deposition 222
7.3.6 Laser Induced Forward Transfer (LIFT) 222
7.4 Applications of 4D Printing 223
7.4.1 Structural Components 223
7.4.2 Robotics 225
7.4.3 Biomedical and Tissue Engineering 226
7.4.4 Electronic Devices and Absorbers 227
7.5 Challenges in 4D Printing Technology 229
7.6 Future Scope of 4D Printing 231
7.7 Conclusion 233
References 234
8 Characterization Techniques for Four Dimensional (4D) Printed Parts 245
Bijaya Bikram Samal, Bharat Charan Goud Marupalli, Pranabjyoti Talukdar, Anita Jena, Roja Rani Korrayi, Tapasendra Adhikary, Shailendra Kumar Varshney and Cheruvu Siva Kumar
8.1 Introduction 246
8.2 Characterization Techniques Overview 248
8.2.1 Introduction to Characterization and its Importance for 4D Printing 248
8.2.2 Characterization Strategies for Ensuring Quality in Additive Manufacturing and 4D Printing 251
8.3 Mechanical Characterization 254
8.3.1 Tensile, Compressive, and Shear Testing 255
8.3.2 Fatigue and Impact Testing 258
8.4 Thermal Characterization 259
8.4.1 Evaluation of Thermal Properties 259
8.4.2 Measurement of Thermal Conductivity in Printed Parts 260
8.4.3 Heat Resistance Testing for Various Printing Materials 260
8.4.4 Impact of Layering on Thermal Performance 262
8.5 Surface Finish and Roughness 262
8.5.1 Assessing Surface Quality 262
8.5.2 Quantitative Analysis of Surface Finish 262
8.5.3 Visual Inspection Techniques 263
8.5.4 Importance of Post-Processing 263
8.5.5 Role of Post-Processing in Achieving Desired Surface Finishes 263
8.6 Microstructure Analysis 263
8.6.1 Microscopic Examination 264
8.6.2 Techniques for Microstructure Analysis 264
8.6.3 Printing Parameter Influence 265
8.7 Dimensional Accuracy and Precision 267
8.7.1 Assessing Accuracy and Precision 268
8.7.2 Measurement Techniques for Dimensional Accuracy 268
8.7.3 Precision Considerations in Layered Manufacturing 268
8.8 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) 269
8.8.1 Introduction to NDT Techniques 269
8.8.2 Overview of Non-Destructive Testing Methods 269
8.8.3 NDT Suitability for Layered Structures 270
8.8.4 Techniques for Identifying Defects in 3D and 4D Prints 270
8.9 Conclusions 270
References 271
9 4D Printing Applications in Photonics 281
Bijaya Bikram Samal, Shubhanshi Sharma, Monica Pradhan and Shailendra K. Varshney
9.1 Introduction 282
9.2 Smart Materials in Photonics 284
9.2.1 Piezoelectric Materials 285
9.2.2 Thermo-Responsive Materials 285
9.2.3 Magneto-Responsive Materials 286
9.2.4 Photoresponsive Materials 288
9.2.5 Hygroscopic Materials 288
9.2.6 Electroactive Materials 289
9.3 4D Printing Processes in Photonics 290
9.3.1 Liquid-Based 290
9.3.1.1 Molten 291
9.3.1.2 Polymerization 292
9.3.2 Solid Based 295
9.3.2.1 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) 295
9.3.2.2 Powder Bed Fusion 295
9.3.2.3 Direct Energy Deposition 296
9.3.2.4 Binder Jetting 296
9.4 4D Printed Optical Components and Their Applications in Optics and Photonics 296
9.4.1 4D Printed Fibers 297
9.4.2 4D Printed Optical Resonators 297
9.4.3 Structural Color Generation and Anticounterfeiting 299
9.4.4 Infrared Detector 300
9.4.5 Sensors and Actuators 301
9.5 Future of 4D Printed Photonics and Emerging Novel Applications 306
9.6 Conclusion 307
Acknowledgement 309
References 309
10 Methods, Materials, Shape Programming, and Applications of 4D Printing 315
Jian Ming Lee, Jie Wei Chee, Joel Zi Xu Wong, Li Yang Foong and Marwan Nafea
10.1 Introduction 316
10.2 4D Printing Methods 317
10.2.1 Material Extrusion (MEX) 318
10.2.2 Vat Photopolymerization (VPP) 319
10.2.3 Material Jetting (MJT) 321
10.2.4 Binder Jetting (BJT) 322
10.2.5 Directed Energy Deposition (DED) 323
10.2.6 Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) 323
10.2.7 Sheet Lamination (SHL) 324
10.3 4D Printing Materials 326
10.3.1 Thermo-Responsive Materials 327
10.3.2 Electro-Responsive Materials 328
10.3.3 Magneto-Responsive Materials 328
10.3.4 Water-Responsive Materials 328
10.3.5 pH-Responsive Materials 328
10.3.6 Photo-Responsive Materials 329
10.3.7 Piezoelectric Materials 329
10.4 Shape Programming 329
10.5 Applications of 4D Printing 331
10.5.1 Electronics Applications 332
10.5.2 Biomedical Applications 333
10.5.3 Origami Applications 334
10.5.4 Robotics Applications 335
10.6 Conclusion and Future Outlook 336
Acknowledgment 336
References 337
Index 345
