Preface xxi
1 Keratin as Renewable Material to Develop Polymer Composites: Natural and Synthetic Matrices 1
Flores-Hernandez C.G., Murillo-Segovia B., Martinez-Hernandez A.L. and Velasco-Santos C
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Keratin 2
1.2.1 Feathers 5
1.2.2 Hair and Wool 8
1.2.3 Horn 9
1.3 Natural Fibers to Reinforce Composite Materials 11
1.4 Keratin, an Environmental Friendly Reinforcement for Composite Materials 11
1.4.1 Synthetic Matrices 11
1.4.1.1 Petroleum-Based Polymers Reinforced with Chicken Feathers 13
1.4.1.2 Synthetic Matrices Reinforced with Hair or Wool 18
1.4.1.3 Synthetic Matrices Reinforced with Horn 20
1.4.2 Natural Matrices 20
1.4.2.1 Natural Matrices Reinforced with Chicken Feathers 21
1.4.2.2 Natural Matrices Reinforced with Hair or Wool 24
1.5 Conclusions 25
References 26
2 Determination of Properties in Composites of Agave Fiber with LDPE and PP Applied Molecular Simulation 31
Norma-Aurea Rangel-Vazquez and Ricardo Rangel
2.1 Introduction 31
2.1.1 Lignocellulosic Materials 31
2.1.1.1 Fibers 32
2.1.1.2 Agave 33
2.1.1.3 Chemical Treatment of Fibers 34
2.1.2 Composites 35
2.1.3 Polymers 35
2.1.3.1 Polyethylene 37
2.1.3.2 Polypropylene (PP) 39
2.1.4 Molecular Modelation 39
2.1.4.1 Classification 40
2.1.4.2 Properties 42
2.2 Materials and Methods 44
2.2.1 Geometry Optimization 44
2.2.2 Structural Parameters 44
2.2.3 FTIR 45
2.2.4 Molecular Electrostatic Potential Map 45
2.3 Results and Discussions 48
2.3.1 Geometry Optimization 48
2.3.2 Deacetylation of Agave Fiber 49
2.3.3 Structural Parameters 50
2.3.4 FTIR 50
2.3.5 Molecular Electrostatic Potential Map (MESP) 54
2.4 Conclusions 54
References 55
3 Hydrogels in Tissue Engineering 59
Luminita Ioana Buruiana and Silvia Ioan
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Classification of Hydrogels 60
3.3 Methods of Hydrogels Preparation 61
3.4 Hydrogels Characterization 63
3.4.1 Mechanical Properties 64
3.4.2 Chemical-Physical Analysis 64
3.4.3 Morphological Characterization 64
3.4.4 Swelling Behavior 65
3.4.5 Rheology Measurements 65
3.5 Hydrogels Applications in Biology and Medicine 66
3.5.1 Hydrogel Scaffolds in Tissue Engineering 66
3.5.2 Hydrogels in Drug Delivery Systems 70
3.6 Concluding Remarks 73
References 74
4 Smart Hydrogels: Application in Bioethanol Production 79
Lucinda Mulko, Edith Yslas, Silvestre Bongiovanni Abel, Claudia Rivarola, Cesar Barbero and Diego Acevedo
4.1 Hydrogels 79
4.2 History of Hydrogels 80
4.3 The Water in Hydrogels 81
4.4 Classifications of Hydrogels 81
4.5 Synthesis 82
4.6 Hydrogels Synthesized by Free Radical Polymerization 83
4.7 Monomers 84
4.8 Initiators 84
4.9 Cross-Linkers 84
4.10 Hydrogel Properties 85
4.11 Mechanical Properties 87
4.12 Biocompatible Properties 87
4.13 Hydrogels: Biomedical Applications 88
4.14 Techniques and Supports for Immobilization 89
4.15 Entrapment 89
4.16 Covalent Binding 90
4.17 Cross-Linking 91
4.18 Adsorption 91
4.19 Hydrogel Applications in Bioethanol Production 92
4.20 Classification of Biofuels 92
4.21 Ethanol Properties 93
4.22 Ethanol Production 95
4.23 Feedstock Pretreatment 95
4.24 Liquefaction and Saccharification Reactions 97
4.25 Fermentation Process 97
4.26 Continuous or Discontinuous Process? 98
4.27 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF) Processes 98
4.28 Yeast and Enzymes Immobilized 99
References 100
5 Principle Renewable Biopolymers and Their Biomedical Applications 107
¿layda Duru, Oznur Demir O¿uz, Hayriye Oztatl¿, Duygu Ceren Ar¿kfidan, Hatice Kaya, Elif Donmez and Duygu Ege
5.1 Collagen 107
5.2 Elastin 111
5.3 Silk Fibroin 114
5.4 Chitosan 116
5.5 Chondroitin Sulfate 119
5.6 Cellulose 121
5.7 Hyaluronic Acid 123
5.8 Poly(L-lysine) 126
References 128
6 Application of Hydrogel Biocomposites for Multiple Drug Delivery 139
S.J. Owonubi, S.C. Agwuncha, E. Mukwevho, B.A. Aderibigbe, E.R. Sadiku, O.F. Biotidara and K. Varaprasad
6.1 Introduction 140
6.2 Sustained Drug Release Systems 142
6.3 Controlled Release Systems 143
6.3.1 Half-Life of the Drug Formulation 143
6.3.2 Absorption 143
6.3.3 Metabolism 143
6.3.4 Dosage Size 144
6.3.5 pH Stability and Aqueous Stability of the Drug Formulation 144
6.3.6 Barrier Co-Efficient 144
6.3.7 Stability 144
6.4 Polymeric Drug Delivery Devices 146
6.5 Multiple Drug Delivery Systems 147
6.5.1 Supramolecules and In Situ-Forming Hydrogels 149
6.5.2 Layer-By-Layer Assembly 150
6.5.3 Interpenetrating Polymer Networks (IPNs) 150
6.5.4 Application of Hydrogels for Multiple Drug Delivery 151
6.5.5 Cancer Treatments 151
6.5.6 Diabetes Treatments 152
6.6 Tissue Engineering 153
6.6.1 Self-Healing 154
6.6.2 Molecular Sensing 155
6.7 Conclusion 155
References 155
7 Non-Toxic Holographic Materials (Holograms in Sweeteners) 167
Arturo Olivares-Perez
7.1 Introduction 167
7.2 Sugars as Holographic Recording Medium 168
7.2.1 Classification and Nomenclature 168
7.2.2 Monosaccharides/Glucose and Fructose 169
7.2.2.1 Glucose 169
7.2.2.2 Fructose 171
7.2.2.3 Disaccharides Sucrose 171
7.2.2.4 Polysaccharides, Pectins 174
7.2.2.5 Sweeteners Corn Syrup 175
7.3 Photosensitizers 176
7.3.1 Dyes 177
7.3.2 Dyes as Sensitizers 177
7.4 Sucrose Preparation and Film Generation 179
7.4.1 UV-Visible Spectral Analysis 180
7.4.2 Replication of Holographic Gratings is Sucrose 181
7.4.2.1 Holographic Code 181
7.4.2.2 Soft Mask 181
7.4.2.3 Thermosensitive Properties Through Mask 181
7.4.2.4 Replication 182
7.4.2.5 Diffraction Efficiency 183
7.4.3 Sucrose With Dyes 185
7.4.3.1 Sugar UV-Visible Spectral Analysis 185
7.4.3.2 Holographic Replicas 186
7.4.3.3 DE Sugar Tartrazine and Erioglaucine Dye 187
7.5 Corn Syrup 188
7.5.1 Holographic Replicas of Low and High Frequency 189
7.5.2 DE Corn Syrup 191
7.6 Hydrophobic Materials 192
7.6.1 Hydrophobic Mixture of Pectin Sucrose and Vanilla 192
7.6.2 UV-Visible Spectral Analysis 192
7.6.3 Holographic Replicas 192
7.6.4 DE Hydrophobic Films PSV 193
7.7 PSV with Dyes 194
7.7.1 UV-Visible Spectral Analysis 194
7.7.2 DE Films PSV and Erioglaucine 194
7.8 Pineapple Juice as Holographic Recording Material 195
7.8.1 Characterization of Pineapple Juice 196
7.8.2 Generation of Pineapple Films 196
7.8.3 Replication Technique 196
7.8.4 DE Pineapple Film 196
7.9 Holograms Made with Milk 198
7.9.1 Low-Fat Milk Tests 198
7.9.2 DE Milk Gratings 198
7.9.2.1 Gravity Technique 198
7.9.2.2 Spinner Technical 199
7.10 Conclusions 200
Acknowledgements 200
References 200
8 Bioplasitcizer Epoxidized Vegetable Oils-Based Poly(Lactic Acid) Blends and Nanocomposites 205
Buong Woei Chieng, Nor Azowa Ibrahim and Yuet Ying Loo
8.1 Introduction 205
8.2 Vegetable Oils 207
8.3 Expoxidation of Vegetable Oils 209
8.4 Poly(lactic acid) 211
8.5 Poly(lactic acid)/Epoxidized Vegetable Oil Blends 213
8.5.1 Poly(lactic acid)/Epoxidized Palm Oil Blend 213
8.5.2 Poly(lactic acid)/Epoxidized Soybean Oil Blend 217
8.5.3 Poly(lactic acid)/Epoxidized Sunflower Oil Blend 219
8.5.4 Poly(lactic acid)/Epoxidized Jatropha Oil Blend 220
8.6 Polymer/Epoxidized Vegetable Oil Nanocomposites 223
8.7 Summary 227
References 227
9 Preparation, Characterization, and Adsorption Properties of Poly(DMAEA) - Cross-Linked Starch Gel Copolymer in Wastewater 233
Sudhir Kumar Saw
9.1 Introduction 233
9.2 Experimental Procedure 237
9.2.1 Materials 237
9.2.2 Instrumentation 237
9.2.3 Preparation of Cross-Linked Starch Gel 238
9.2.4 Preparation of Poly(DMAEA) - Cross-Linked Starch Gel Graft Copolymer 238
9.2.5 Determination of Nitrogen 239
9.2.6 Experimental Process of Removal of Heavy Metal Ions 239
9.2.7 Removal of Dyes 240
9.2.8 Recovery of the Prepared Copolymer 240
9.3 Results and Discussion 240
9.3.1 Effect of pH 240
9.3.2 Effect of Extent of Grafting on Metal Removal 242
9.3.3 Effect of Adsorbent Dose Used 243
9.3.4 Effect of Treatment Time on the Metal Removal 243
9.3.5 Effect of Agitation Speed 244
9.3.6 Effect of Temperature 245
9.3.7 Recovery of Starch 247
9.3.8 Removal of Dyes 247
9.3.9 Adsorption Kinetics 248
9.3.10 Adsorption Isotherm 249
9.4 Conclusions 250
Acknowledgement 251
References 251
10 Study of Chitosan Cross-Linking Genipin Hydrogels for Absorption of Antifungal Drugs Using Molecular Modeling 255
Norma Aurea Rangel-Vazquez
10.1 Introduction 255
10.1.1 Polymers 255
10.1.1.1 Properties 256
10.1.2 Natural Polymers 257
10.1.2.1 Chitosan 258
10.1.3 Hydrogels 260
10.1.3.1 Applications 261
10.1.4 Antifungals 261
10.1.4.1 Classification 261
10.1.4.2 Fluconazole 262
10.1.4.3 Voriconazole 263
10.1.4.4 Ketoconazole 263
10.1.5 Molecular Modeling 264
10.2 Methodology 265
10.2.1 Geometry Optimization (¿G) 265
10.2.2 Bond Lengths 265
10.2.3 FTIR 267
10.2.4 MESP 269
10.3 Results and Discussions 269
10.3.1 Gibbs Free Energy 269
10.3.2 Bond Lengths 270
10.3.3 FTIR 271
10.3.4 MESP 274
10.3.5 HOMO/LUMO Orbitals 275
10.5.4 Conclusions 281
References 282
11 Pharmaceutical Delivery Systems Composed of Chitosan 285
Livia N. Borgheti-Cardoso, Fabiana T.M.C. Vicentini, Marcilio S.S. Cunha Filho and Guilherme M. Gelfuso
11.1 Introduction 285
11.2 Chitosan Micro- and Nanoparticles 286
11.2.1 Oral Applications 287
11.2.2 Topical Formulations 288
11.2.3 Ocular Delivery Systems 289
11.3 Bioadhesive Chitosan Hydrogels 291
11.3.1 Ocular Gel Formulations 292
11.3.2 Topical Formulations 293
11.4 Chitosan Topical/Transdermal Films 295
11.5 Chitosan as Coating Material to Produce Lipid Capsules, Liposomes, Metallic and Magnetic Nanoparticles 296
11.6 Oral Beads Based on Chitosan for Controlled Delivery of Drugs 298
11.7 Conclusion 300
Acknowledgement 300
References 300
12 Eco-Friendly Polymers for Food Packaging 309
Sweetie R. Kanatt, Shobita. R. Muppalla and S.P. Chawla
12.1 Introduction 309
12.2 Sources of Biopolymers 311
12.2.1 Polymers Extracted from Biomass 311
12.2.2 Polysaccharides 312
12.2.2.1 Starch 312
12.2.2.2 Corn Starch 313
12.2.2.3 Cassava Starch 314
12.2.2.4 Potato Starch 314
12.2.2.5 Konjac Glucomannan 314
12.2.2.6 Starch Modifications 314
12.2.3 Cellulose 315
12.2.3.1 Cellulose Derivatives 316
12.2.4 Gums 316
12.2.4.1 Guar Gum 316
12.2.4.2 Locust Bean Gum 317
12.2.4.3 Gum Arabic 318
12.2.4.4 Pectin 318
12.2.4.5 Chitin and Chitosan 319
12.2.5 Proteins 319
12.2.5.1 Zein 320
12.2.5.2 Wheat Gluten 321
12.2.5.3 Soy Protein 321
12.2.5.4 Whey Protein and Casein 321
12.2.5.5 Collagen 322
12.2.6 Lipids 322
12.2.7 Polymers Obtained from Microbial Sources 323
12.2.7.1 Agar 323
12.2.7.2 Alginate 323
12.2.7.3 Carrageenan 324
12.2.7.4 Gellan 324
12.2.7.5 Pullulan 325
12.2.7.6 Xanthan 325
12.2.7.7 Bacterial Cellulose 326
12.2.7.8 Polyhydroxyalkonates (PHA) 326
12.2.8 Polymers Synthesized from Bio-Derived Monomers 326
12.2.8.1 Polylactic Acid (PLA) 326
12.3 Properties of Biopolymer Packaging Films 327
12.3.1 Physical Properties 327
12.3.1.1 Permeability 327
12.3.1.2 Oxygen Transmission Rate (OTR) 328
12.3.1.3 Water Vapor Transmission Rate (WVTR) 329
12.3.1.4 Carbon Dioxide Transmission Rate (CO2TR) 330
12.3.2 Mechanical Properties 330
12.3.3 Thermal Properties 331
12.3.4 Degradation 332
12.3.4.1 Biodegradation 332
12.4 Composite Films 333
12.5 Bionanocomposites 335
12.6 Methods for Film Processing 335
12.6.1 Casting 336
12.6.2 Extrusion 336
12.6.3 Injection Molding 336
12.6.4 Blow Molding 337
12.6.5 Thermoforming 337
12.6.6 Foamed Products 337
12.7 Applications of Biopolymers in Food Packaging 338
12.7.1 Biodegradable Packaging Material 338
12.7.2 Active Packaging 338
12.7.3 Biopolymers as Edible Packaging 339
12.7.3.1 Edible Coating 339
12.7.3.2 Fruits and Vegetables 340
12.7.3.3 Flesh Foods 341
12.7.3.4 Seafoods 341
12.7.3.5 Meat and Meat Products 341
12.7.3.6 Eggs 341
12.7.3.7 Nuts 342
12.7.3.8 Dairy Products 342
12.7.4 Edible Films 343
12.7.4.1 Fruits and Vegetables 343
12.7.4.2 Flesh Foods 343
12.7.5 Intelligent Packaging 344
12.8 Conclusion and Future Prospects 344
References 345
13 Influence of Surface Modification on the Thermal Stability and Percentage of Crystallinity of Natural Abaca Fiber 353
Basavaraju Bennehalli, Srinivasa Chikkol Venkateshappa, Rama Devi Punyamurthy, Dhanalakshmi Sampathkumar and Raghu Patel Gowdru Rangana Gowda
13.1 Introduction 353
13.2 Materials and Methods 355
13.2.1 Materials 355
13.2.2 Alkali Treatment of Abaca Fiber 355
13.2.3 Acrylic Acid Treatment of Abaca Fiber 356
13.2.4 Acetylation of Abaca Fiber 356
13.2.5 Benzoylation of Abaca Fiber 356
13.2.6 Permanganate Treatment of Abaca Fiber 356
13.2.7 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) 356
13.2.8 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 356
13.2.9 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD) 357
13.3 Results and Discussion 357
13.3.1 Chemical Treatment of Fibers 357
13.3.2 IR Spectra of Fibers 358
13.3.3 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) 361
13.3.4 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis (XRD) 369
13.4 Conclusions 373
References 373
14 Influence of the Use of Natural Fibers in Composite Materials Assessed on a Life Cycle Perspective 377
Hugo Carvalho, Ana Raposo, Ines Ribeiro, Paulo Pecas, Arlindo Silva and Elsa Henriques
14.1 Introduction 377
14.2 Composite Materials: An Overview 379
14.2.1 Composites Design 380
14.2.2 Fiber-Reinforced Composites and Natural Fibers 380
14.2.3 World Production of Natural Fibers 381
14.3 Methodology 382
14.4 Case Study: Bonnet Component 383
14.4.1 Boundary Conditions and Loading 384
14.4.2 Materials 384
14.4.3 Technical Requirements 385
14.4.4 Design Specifications 387
14.5 Life Cycle Stages 389
14.5.1 Raw Material Acquisition 389
14.5.2 Transport 389
14.5.3 Manufacturing Phase 390
14.5.4 Use Phase 391
14.5.5 End of Life Phase 391
14.6 Results 391
14.6.1 Economic Dimension Evaluation 391
14.6.2 Environmental Dimension Evaluation 392
14.6.3 Technical Results 392
14.6.4 Global Evaluation 394
14.6.4.1 Sensitivity Analysis to the Life Cycle Stages 394
14.7 Conclusion 395
References 396
15 Plant Polysaccharides Blended Ionotropically Gelled Alginate Multiple Unit Systems for Sustained Drug Release 399
Dilipkumar Pal and Amit Kumar Nayak
15.1 Introduction 399
15.2 Plant Polysaccharide in Sustained Release Drug Delivery 401
15.3 Alginates and Their Ionotropic Gelation 402
15.4 Various Plant Polysaccharides-Blended Ionotropically-Gelled Alginate Microparticles/Beads 406
15.4.1 Locust Bean Bum-Alginate Blends 406
15.4.2 Gum Arabic-Alginate Blends 411
15.4.3 Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide-Alginate Blends 412
15.4.4 Okra Gum-Alginate Blends 417
15.4.5 Fenugreek Seed Mucilage-Alginate Blends 421
15.4.6 Ispaghula Husk Mucilage-Alginate Blends 423
15.4.7 Aloe Vera Gel-Alginate Blends 424
15.4.8 Sterculia Gum-Alginate Blends 425
15.4.9 Jackfruit Seed Starch-Alginate Blends 428
15.4.10 Potato Starch-Alginate Blends 430
15.5 Conclusion 431
References 431
16 Vegetable Oil-Based Polymer Composites: Synthesis, Properties and Their Applications 441
Shubhalakshmi Sengupta and Dipa Ray
16.1 Introduction 441
16.2 Vegetable Oils 442
16.2.1 Composition and Structure of Vegetable Oils 442
16.2.2 Properties of Vegetable Oils 443
16.3 Vegetable Oils Used for Polymers and Composites 444
16.3.1 Synthesis of Polymeric Materials from Vegetable Oils 444
16.3.2 Modification of Vegetable Oils and Their Use in Composites 447
16.3.2.1 Epoxidized Vegetable Oils and Their Composites 447
16.3.2.2 Maleated Vegetable Oils and Their Composites 454
16.3.3 Cationic Polymerization of Vegetable Oils and Their Composites 460
16.4 Free Radical Polymerization of Vegetable Oils and Their Composites 465
16.5 Application Possibilities and Future Directions 465
References 466
17 Applications of Chitosan Derivatives in Wastewater Treatment 471
Taslim U. Rashid, Md. Sazedul Islam, Sadia Sharmeen, Shanta Biswas, Asaduz Zaman, M. Nuruzzaman Khan, Abul K. Mallik, Papia Haque and Mohammed Mizanur Rahman
17.1 Introduction 471
17.2 Chitin and Chitosan 473
17.2.1 Sources of Chitin and Chitosan 474
17.2.2 Extraction of Chitosan 474
17.2.3 Properties of Chitosan 475
17.2.3.1 Degradation 477
17.2.3.2 Molecular Weight 477
17.2.3.3 Solvent Properties 477
17.2.3.4 Mechanical Properties 477
17.2.3.5 Adsorption 478
17.2.3.6 Cross-Linking Properties of Chitosan 478
17.2.3.7 Antioxidant Properties 479
17.2.4 Applications of Chitosan 480
17.3 Chitosan Derivatives in Wastewater Treatment 481
17.3.1 Carboxymethyl-Chitosan (CMC) 481
17.3.2 Ethylenediaminetetraaceticacid (EDTA) and Diethylenetriaminepentaacetic Acid (DTPA) Modified Chitosan 483
17.3.3 Triethylene-Tetramine Grafted Magnetic Chitosan (Fe3O4-TETA-CMCS) 484
17.3.4 Carboxymethyl-Polyaminate Chitosan (DETA-CMCHS) 486
17.3.5 Tetraethylenepentamine (TEPA) Modified Chitosan (TEPA-CS) 487
17.3.6 Ethylenediamine Modified Chitosan (EDA-CS) 488
17.3.7 Epichlorohydrin Cross-Linked Succinyl Chitosan (SCCS) 489
17.3.8 N-(2 -Hydroxy-3 Mercaptopropyl)-Chitosan 490
17.3.9 Epichlorohydrin Cross-Linked Chitosan (ECH-Chitosan) 490
17.3.10 Quaternary Chitosan Salt (QCS) 492
17.3.11 Magnetic Chitosan-Isatin Schiff 's Base Resin (CSIS) 492
17.3.12 Chitosan-Fe(III) Hydrogel 493
17.4 Adsorption of Heavy Metals on Chitosan Composites from Wastewater 493
17.4.1 ¿-Fe2O3 impregnated Chitosan Beads With As(III) as Imprinted Ions 493
17.4.2 Chitosan/Cellulose Composites 494
17.4.3 Chitosan/Clinoptilolite Composite 495
17.4.4 Chitosan/Sand Composite 496
17.4.5 Chitosan/Bentonite Composite 496
17.4.6 Chitosan/Cotton Fiber 497
17.4.7 Magnetic Thiourea-Chitosan Imprinted Ag+ 498
17.4.8 Nano-Hydroxyapatite Chitin/Chitosan Hybrid Biocomposites 498
17.5 Adsorption of Dyes on Chitosan Composites from Wastewater 499
17.5.1 Fe2O3/Cross-Linked Chitosan Adsorbent 499
17.5.2 Chitosan-Lignin Composite 500
17.5.3 Chitosan-Polyaniline/ZnO Hybrid Composite 501
17.5.4 Coalesced Chitosan Activated Carbon Composite 502
17.5.5 Chitosan/Clay Composite 502
17.6 Conclusion 504
References 504
18 Novel Lignin-Based Materials as Products for Various Applications 519
¿ukasz Klapiszewski and Teofil Jesionowski
18.1 Lignin - A General Overview 519
18.1.1 A Short History 519
18.1.2 Synthesis and Structural Aspects 521
18.1.3 Types of Lignin 523
18.1.4 Applications of Lignin 528
18.2 Lignin/Silica-Based Hybrid Materials 531
18.3 Combining of Lignin and Chitin 535
18.4 Lignin-Based Products as Functional Materials 540
References 543
19 Biopolymers from Renewable Resources and Thermoplastic Starch Matrix as Polymer Units of Multi-Component Polymer Systems for Advanced Applications 555
Carmen-Alice Teac¿ and Ruxanda Bodirl¿u
19.1 Introduction 555
19.2 Thermoplastic Starch Matrix and its Application for Advanced Composite Materials 557
19.3 Biopolymers from Sustainable Renewable Sources 558
19.3.1 Chitin 558
19.3.2 Wheat Straw 559
19.3.3 Spruce Bleached Kraft Pulp 559
19.4 Thermoplastic Starch as Polymer Matrix and Biopolymers from Renewable Resources for Composite Materials 560
19.4.1 Obtainment 560
19.4.1.1 Materials 561
19.4.1.2 Preparation of Composites Based on Plasticized Starch and Biopolymers with Addition of Vegetal Fillers 561
19.4.2 Investigation Methods and Properties 562
19.4.2.1 FTIR Spectroscopy Analysis 562
19.4.2.2 Water Uptake Measurements 563
19.4.2.3 Optical Properties 567
19.4.2.4 Evaluation of the Fillers' Particle Size 570
19.5 Conclusions 570
Acknowledgements 572
References 572
20 Chitosan Composites: Preparation and Applications in Removing Water Pollutants 577
Mohammad Reza Ganjali, Morteza Rezapour, Farnoush Faridbod and Parviz Norouzi
20.1 Introduction to Chitosan 577
20.1.1 Other Derivatives of Chitin 580
20.1.2 Properties of Chitosan 580
20.1.3 Modification and Derivatization of Chitosan 581
20.2 Chitosan Composites 583
20.2.1 Activated Clay-Chitosan (ACC) Composites 583
20.2.1.1 Attapulgite Clay-Nanocomposite 583
20.2.1.2 Composites of Bentonite, Montmorillonite, and Other Types of Clay 584
20.2.2 Alginate-Chitosan (AC) Composites 589
20.2.3 Cellulose-Chitosan (CC) Composites 589
20.2.3.1 Cotton Fiber-Chitosan Composites 591
20.2.4 Ceramic Alumina-Chitosan Composites 592
20.2.5 Hydroxyapatite-Chitosan Composites 596
20.3 Palm Oil Ash-Chitosan Composites 598
20.4 Perlite-Chitosan Composites 598
20.5 Polymer-Chitosan Composites 599
20.5.1 Polyurethane-Chitosan Composites 599
20.5.2 Polyvinyl Alcohol-Chitosan Composites 602
20.5.3 Polyacrylamide-Chitosan Composites 605
20.5.4 Polymethylmethacrylate-Chitosan Composites 607
20.5.5 Poly(methacrylic acid)-Chitosan Composites 611
20.5.6 Polyvinyl Chloride-Chitosan Composites 612
20.5.7 Molecular Imprinted-Chitosan Composites 613
20.6 Sand-Chitosan Composites 619
20.7 Magnetic Nano-Adsorbents or Micro-Adsorbent 619
20.7.1 Chitosan-Based Magnetic Particles 620
20.7.2 Modified-Chitosan or Chitosan-Polymer Based Magnetic Composites 627
20.7.3 Magnetic Chitosan-Carbon Composites 645
20.7.4 Magnetic Composites of Chitosan with Inorganic Compounds 649
References 652
21 Recent Advances in Biopolymer Composites for Environmental Issues 673
Mazhar Ul Islam, Shaukat Khan, Muhammad Wajid Ullah and Joong Kon Park
21.1 Introduction 673
21.2 Historical Background 674
21.3 Some Important Biopolymers 677
21.3.1 Bio-Cellulose 678
21.3.2 Xanthan and Dextran 679
21.3.3 Poly(hydroxyalkanoates) 680
21.3.4 Polylactide 680
21.3.5 Poly(trimethylene terephthalate) 681
21.4 Biopolymer Composites 681
21.5 Biodegradability of Biopolymers: An Important Feature for Addressing Environmental Concerns 682
21.6 Environmental Aspects of Biopolymers and Biopolymer Composites 684
21.6.1 Catalytic Degradation of Contaminants 684
21.6.2 Adsorption of Pollutants 685
21.6.3 Magnetic Composites 686
21.6.4 Pollutant Sensors 686
21.7 Future Prospects 686
Acknowledgement 687
References 687
Index 693
